Fabrication of low-loss, light-waveguiding, orientation-patterned semiconductor structures

ABSTRACT

Methods for the fabrication of orientation-patterned semiconductor structures are provided. The structures are light-waveguiding structures for nonlinear frequency conversion. The structures are periodically poled semiconductor heterostructures comprising a series of material domains disposed in a periodically alternating arrangement along the optical propagation axis of the waveguide. The methods of fabricating the orientation-patterned structures utilize a series of surface planarization steps at intermediate stages of the heterostucture growth process to provide interlayer interfaces having extremely low roughnesses.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser.No. 13/562,560 that was filed Jul. 31, 2012, the entire contents ofwhich are hereby incorporated by reference.

REFERENCE TO GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under FA8650-10-C-1894awarded by the US Air Force/ESC. The government has certain rights inthe invention.

BACKGROUND

Orientation-Patterned GaAs (OPGaAs) waveguide structures are promisingdevices for mid-infrared (IR) nonlinear conversion since tight opticalconfinement to a highly nonlinear medium allows high-frequencyconversion efficiency of CW sources. The use of OPGaAs for IR and THzgeneration has been successfully realized by using MBE-grown templates.(See, Yu, X., Scaccabarozzi, L., Levi, O., Pinguet, T. J., Fejer. M. M.and Harris Jr., J. S., “Template design and fabrication for low-lossorientation-patterned nonlinear AlGaAs waveguides pumped at 1.55 μm”, J.Cryst. Growth, 251, April 2003, pp. 794-799.) However, the templates socreated had a periodic depth variation between alternate regions ofdiffering crystalline orientation, the so-called trench depth, of ˜1500Å. Since crystal growth on the templates was highly anisotropic theresult was a top surface composed of ˜50 μm-tall triangular featuresthat occurred periodically.

OPGaAs templates have also been obtained using wafer diffusion bondingand selected-layer removal. (See, Oron, M. B., Shusterman, S. and Blau,P., “Periodically oriented GaAs templates and waveguide structures forfrequency conversion”, Proc. SPIE, 6875, February 2008, 68750F.) Usingthis technique, the trench depth was reduced to values of ˜900 Å. Thecrystal growth technique used was metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy(MOVPE), which transferred the template's periodic depth variation tothe grown layers. Ridge-type waveguides were subsequently fabricated ontemplates of 900 Å trench depth, and the waveguide-loss coefficient,α_(w), at a wavelength of 1.6 μm, was measured to be in the 3-5 dB/cmrange.

Using templates of 600-800 Å trench depth, the α_(w) value was loweredto typical values of 1.3-1.5 dB/cm at 1.6 μm wavelength, while theperiodic trench depth was still transferred to the waveguide layers withsome variation in the channel profile. (See, Oron, M. B. Blau, P.,Pearl, S. and Katz, M., “Optical parametric oscillation in orientationpatterned GaAs waveguides”, Proc. SPIE, 8240, February 2012, 82400C.)

SUMMARY

Methods for fabricating waveguiding, orientation-patterned semiconductorstructures and semiconductor structures made using the methods areprovided.

The structures are grown on a growth template comprising a first set oftemplate domains comprising a material having a first crystallineorientation and second set of template domains comprising the material,but having a second crystalline orientation, wherein the domains of thefirst set and the domains of the second set are disposed in aperiodically alternating arrangement along the optical propagation axisof the structure. One embodiment of the present methods for thefabrication of orientation-patterned semiconductor structures comprises:(a) optionally, growing a layer of buffer material on the growthtemplate, wherein the layer of buffer material comprises a first set ofbuffer layer domains grown on the first set of template domains andhaving a first crystalline orientation and a second set of buffer layerdomains grown on the second set of template domains and having a secondcrystalline orientation; (b) if a layer of buffer material is grown onthe growth template, planarizing the top surface of the layer of buffermaterial using a chemical polish followed by an isotropic etch; (c)growing a lower layer of cladding material on the growth template or, ifpresent, on the layer of buffer material, wherein the lower layer ofcladding material comprises a first set of lower cladding layer domainsgrown on the first set of template domains or, if present, on the firstset of buffer layer domains and having a first crystalline orientationand a second set of lower cladding layer domains grown on the second setof template domains or, if present, on the second set of buffer layerdomains and having a second crystalline orientation; (d) planarizing thetop surface of the lower layer of cladding material using a chemicalpolish followed by an isotropic etch; (e) growing a layer of corematerial on the lower layer of cladding material, wherein the layer ofcore material comprises a first set of core layer domains grown on thefirst set of lower cladding layer domains and having a first crystallineorientation and a second set of core layer domains grown on the secondset of lower cladding layer domains and having a second crystallineorientation; (f) planarizing the top surface of the layer of corematerial using a chemical polish followed by an isotropic etch; (g)growing an upper layer of cladding material on the layer of corematerial, wherein the upper layer of cladding material comprises a firstset of upper cladding layer domains grown on the first set of core layerdomains and having a first crystalline orientation and a second set ofupper cladding layer domains grown on the second set of core layerdomains and having a second crystalline orientation; (h) growing a layerof ridge material on the upper layer of cladding material, wherein thelayer of ridge material comprises a first set of ridge layer domainsgrown on the first set of upper cladding layer domains and having afirst crystalline orientation and a second set of ridge layer domainsgrown on the second set of upper cladding layer domains and having asecond crystalline orientation; and (i) planarizing the top surface ofthe layer of ridge material using a chemical polish followed by anisotropic etch; and (j) fabricating a waveguide ridge from theplanarized layer of ridge material.

One embodiment of a light-waveguiding, orientation-patternedsemiconductor structure comprises: (a) a growth template comprising afirst set of template domains comprising a material having a firstcrystalline orientation and second set of template domains comprisingthe material having a second crystalline orientation, wherein thedomains of the first set and the domains of the second set are disposedin a periodically alternating arrangement along the optical propagationaxis of the structure; (b) optionally, a layer of buffer material on thetop surface of the growth template, wherein the layer of buffer materialcomprises a first set of buffer layer domains disposed on the first setof template domains and having a first crystalline orientation and asecond set of buffer layer domains disposed on the second set oftemplate domains and having a second crystalline orientation; (c) alower layer of cladding material on the top surface of the growthtemplate or, if present, on the layer of buffer material; wherein thelower layer of cladding material comprises a first set of lower claddinglayer domains disposed on the first set of template domains or, ifpresent, on the first set of buffer layer domains and having a firstcrystalline orientation and a second set of lower cladding layer domainsdisposed on the second set of template domains or, if present, on thebuffer layer domains and having a second crystalline orientation; (d) alayer of core material on the top surface of the lower layer of claddingmaterial; wherein the layer of core material comprises a first set ofcore layer domains disposed on the first set of lower cladding layerdomains and having a first crystalline orientation and a second set ofcore layer domains disposed on the second set of lower cladding layerdomains and having a second crystalline orientation; (e) an upper layerof cladding material on the top surface of the layer of core material;wherein the upper layer of cladding material comprises a first set ofupper cladding layer domains disposed on the first set of core layerdomains and having a first crystalline orientation and a second set ofupper cladding layer domains disposed on the second set of core layerdomains and having a second crystalline orientation; and (f) a waveguideridge on the top surface of the layer of upper cladding material;wherein the waveguide ridge comprises a first set of domains disposed onthe first set of upper cladding layer domains and having a firstcrystalline orientation and a second set of ridge domains disposed onthe second set of upper cladding layer domains and having a secondcrystalline orientation; wherein the top surface of the layer of buffermaterial, the top surface of the lower layer of cladding material, thetop surface of the layer of core material and the top surface of thewaveguide ridge each have an rms roughness of no greater than 10 nm.

Other principal features and advantages of the invention will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art upon review of the followingdrawings, the detailed description, and the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Illustrative embodiments of the invention will hereafter be describedwith reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein like numeralsdenote like elements.

FIG. 1A. Schematic perspective view of light-waveguiding,orientation-patterned structure; FIG. 1B. Cross-sectional view oflight-waveguiding, orientation-patterned structure, with theoptical-mode profile shown for the 2-D waveguide.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Methods for the fabrication of orientation-patterned semiconductorstructures are provided. The structures are light-waveguiding structuresfor efficient, nonlinear frequency conversion and, in some embodiments,are able to generate light in the visible, near- or mid-IR regions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum with single spatial mode operation. Thestructures are periodically poled semiconductor heterostructurescomprising a series of domains disposed in a periodically alternatingarrangement along the optical propagation axis of waveguide. In thisarrangement, adjacent domains differ in their crystallographicorientation, but not in their refractive indices, such that, ideally,light scattering would not occur at the domain boundaries.

The methods of fabricating the orientation-patterned structures utilizea series of surface planarization steps at intermediate stages of theheterostucture growth process to provide interlayer interfaces havingextremely low roughnesses. As a result of the planarization steps, whichinclude a combination of chemical polishing and isotropic etching, thethickness variation (corrugation) at the top surface of each planarizedlayer is reduced, thereby providing very smooth waveguide layerinterfaces. This reduction in interfacial roughness results in asubstantial decrease in optical losses and a substantial increase innonlinear frequency conversion efficiency.

An illustrative embodiment of an orientation-patterned semiconductorstructure that can be fabricated using the present methods is shown inthe schematic diagram of FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIG. 1A shows a perspectiveview of the structure, while FIG. 1B shows a cross-sectional view of thestructure taken along the optical propagation axis of the waveguide. (Inthe embodiment depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the waveguide includes asingle high-refractive-index ridge. However, other lateral waveguidedesigns can be used. For example, lateral optical-mode confinement canbe obtained by using several ridges, to form, for instance, antiresonantreflective optical waveguide (ARROW)-type structures, or by usingburied-heterostructure configurations for which a ridge or ridges areembedded in the structures via crystal regrowth.) The bottom layer inthe structure is a growth template 102, upon which the waveguide can beepitaxially grown. Growth template 102 defines a series of periodicallyalternating domains, wherein adjacent domains have the same materialcomposition, but different crystalline orientations. In particular,growth template 102 comprises a first set of template domains 103comprising a material having a first crystalline orientation and asecond set of domains 104 of the same material having a secondcrystalline orientation, wherein the domains of the first set areinterspersed between the domains of the second set. The growth templatescan be made, for example, via molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) growth, asdescribed in Yu, X., Scaccabarozzi, L., Levi, O., Pinguet, T. J., Fejer.M. M. and Harris Jr., J. S., “Template design and fabrication forlow-loss orientation-patterned nonlinear AlGaAs waveguides pumped at1.55 μm”, J. Cryst. Growth, 251, April 2003, pp. 794-799, or by waferbonding and etchback.

As used herein, the terms “first crystalline orientation” and “secondcrystalline orientation” are used to refer to two materials havingdifferent crystalline orientations; that is, the first crystallineorientation is not the same as the second crystalline orientation.

The waveguide structure grown on the growth template comprises a layerof core material 105 sandwiched between a lower layer of claddingmaterial 106 and an upper layer of cladding material 108. The materialof the core layer allows a large part of the light of the desiredwavelengths to propagate therethrough and the materials of the lower andupper cladding layers have lower indices of refraction than the corematerial, such that they confine a large part of the optical modes ofthe core layer in the transverse direction; that is, the directionperpendicular to the heterostructure layers. In the embodiment depictedhere, the waveguide further includes a longitudinalhigh-refractive-index ridge 111 projecting from the upper cladding layerand running along the direction of light propagation. The ridge causeslight confinement in the lateral direction; that is, the directionparallel to the heterostructure layers. Thus, the optical mode isconfined in two directions; that is, the structure is a two-dimensionalwaveguide, as shown in FIG. 1B. In this design, the composition andthicknesses of the ridge and cladding layers are desirably selected toprovide for a 2-D, single spatial optical mode 109 operation.

A layer of buffer material 110 may be grown over growth template 102,the composition of which allows for the epitaxial growth of thesubsequently grown waveguide layers. In addition, buffer layer 110 canbe used to minimize or prevent the propagation of domain boundarydefects from growth template 102 into the layers subsequently grownthereon, as described in greater detail below.

As the semiconductor heterostructure undergoes layer by layer epitaxialgrowth, the periodically alternating domain structure of the growthtemplate is carried through the other layers, such that each layerdefines a plurality of alternating domains in which adjacent domainshave different crystalline orientations.

The heterostructures may be fabricated from semiconductors including,but not limited to Group III-V semiconductors or Group II-VIsemiconductors. For example, the various layers can comprise GaAs, GaPand/or GaN semiconductor materials. For purposes of clarification, thephrase “comprising GaAs” and like phrases indicate that the material maybe GaAs (wherein the ratio of Ga:As may vary) or may be an alloy of GaAswith one or more additional elements, such as AlGaAs (wherein the ratioof Al:Ga:As may vary). Examples of material systems from which theheterostructures can be fabricated—presented in the layer order ofgrowth template/buffer layer/lower cladding/core/uppercladding/ridge—include: GaAs/GaAs (or AlGaAs)/AlGaAs(Ga-rich)/GaAs/AlGaAs (Ga-rich)/GaAs; GaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs(Ga-rich)/AlGaAs/AlGaAs (Ga-rich)/GaAs; and GaAs/GaAsP/AlGaP(Ga-rich)/GaP/AlGaP (Ga-rich)/GaP. In some embodiments, the entirestructure may be composed on semiconductor materials that are free ofaluminum, such that the entire structure can be grown using HVPE. Forexample, GaAs can be used as an Al-free core material and InGaP (latticematched to GaAs) can be used as an Al-free cladding material.

The appropriate thickness range for each layer in the structure can varyprovided it is suitable to allow that layer to carry out its intendedfunction. The optimal thickness will depend on a variety of factorsincluding material composition, method of growth and/or the thickness ofthe other layers in the structure. Typically, each layer of thewaveguide portion of the heterostructure will have a thickness in therange from about 0.2 to about 6 μm. However, thicknesses outside of thisrange are possible.

By way of illustration, specific examples of suitable materials forthree embodiments of a waveguiding, orientation-patterned semiconductorstructure are provided in Table 1. For Structure A, illustrative layerthicknesses are also provided.

TABLE 1 Structure A Thickness Structure B Structure C Layer Material(μm) Material Material Ridge GaAs 1.5 GaP GaP Upper Al_(0.25)Ga_(0.75)As0.5 Al_(0.25)Ga_(0.75)P Al_(0.25)Ga_(0.75)P Cladding Core GaAs 3 GaP GaPLower Al_(0.3)Ga_(0.7)As 5 Al_(0.3)Ga_(0.7)P Al_(0.3)Ga_(0.7)P CladdingBuffer GaAs GaAs_(x)P_(1−x) GaP Growth OPGaAs OPGaAs OPGaP Template

Structure A in Table 1 is designed to support only the fundamentallateral mode at wavelengths of 2.0 μm, 4.0 μm and 5.5 μm. The waveguidesupports the fundamental mode over a 4-14 μm range in ridge width, W. Incontrast, the 2-D effective index of the first-order lateral mode liesbelow the effective index in the regions outside the ridge and, thus, isnot supported for any value of W in the 4-14 μm range.

Structure B in Table 1 is designed to produce efficient second harmonicgeneration (SHG) light in the green spectral region (i.e., wavelengthsaround 530 nm). A conventional high-performance diode-pumped laser at1060 nm can be employed and efficiently coupled into the quasi-phasematched (QPM)-waveguide device. For yellow-green emission, materialssuch as Al_(x)Ga_(1-x)P/GaP can be employed in order to avoid excessiveoptical absorption at those wavelengths. While there are only a fewreports on the non-linear optical properties of GaP, the high symmetryof III-V zinc blende semiconductors is known to lead to the existence ofa nonlinear coefficient (d₁₄) for the second-order susceptibilitytensor. However, these materials have a smaller lattice constant thanthat of GaAs substrates. Due to the lattice mismatch, the growth of suchmaterials on GaAs will typically result in excessively large dislocationdensities (˜10⁹ cm⁻³) which in turn would lead to highoptical-scattering losses in the waveguide structure. To avoid this, acompositionally graded metamorphic buffer layer (MBL) can be used,allowing for slowly grading the lattice constant from the OPGaAstemplate to higher-energy-bandgap, (Al)GaP-based materials. Such MBLscan have a step-graded GaAs_(x)P_(1−x) structure grown by either MOVPEor HVPE. Then, the waveguide structure grown by MOVPE on top of the MBLwill have significantly reduced threading dislocation density (˜10⁴-10⁶cm⁻³).

An alternate approach (Structure C) illustrates the use of direct growthon a OPGaP substrate instead of an OPGaAs substrate. The advantage ofsuch an approach is that the waveguide materials can be grown nominallylattice-matched without the need to employ a thick MBL. Such an OPGaPtemplate can be produced by using similar techniques to those that arecurrently employed for the fabrication of OPGaAs templates.

The light-waveguiding, orientation-patterned structures can befabricated using epitaxial growth techniques combined with a chemicalpolish followed by an isotropic etch after the epitaxial growth of atleast some of the layers in the structures. Following the polishing andetching steps, the planarized surface may have an rms roughness of 10 nmor less. This includes embodiments in which the planarized surface hasan rms roughness of 8 nm or less; of 6 nm or less; of 5 nm or less; of 4nm or less.

As used herein, the term chemical polish refers to a process in which apolishing substrate, such as a pad (e.g., a polyurethane pad) having achemical polishing solution disposed thereon or therein is pressedagainst a surface to be polished while undergoing a polishing motion,such as rotation, whereby the resulting rubbing and/or friction betweenthe two surfaces reduces the roughness of the surface being polished. Asused herein, the term chemical polishing includes chemical mechanicalpolishing in which particulate mechanical polishing agents, such ascolloidal silica, are added to the chemical polishing solution.

The isotropic etching step carried out during the surface planarizationprocess can be a wet chemical etch, a dry vapor etch or a combinationthereof. Unlike polishing, etching does not rely on surface contact orrubbing to achieve a reduction in surface roughness. For a given etchingprotocol, an etch will be considered to be isotropic if it provides thedesired low rms roughness to the etched surface. The etching stepfollows the polishing step in order to remove or significantly reducemorphological damage caused by the polishing step.

In a wet chemical etch, a surface is exposed to a liquid-phase solutioncomprising a chemical etchant that dissolves the material to be etched.The chemical etchant is commonly an acid, such as phosphoric acid orsulfuric acid, in a solvent, such as water or an organic solvent. In adry vapor etch, a surface is exposed to a vapor-phase environmentcomprising a vapor-phase chemical etchant that dissolves the material tobe etched, typically at a high temperature (e.g., a temperature in therange from about 500° C. to about 900° C.). HCl is one example of asuitable vapor phase etchant.

The following description illustrates the use of the present methods tofabricate the waveguide structure of FIGS. 1A and 1B, using aplanarization step after the epitaxial growth of each of the bufferlayer, the lower cladding layer, the core layer, and the ridge layer.However, in some embodiments of the methods one or more of theseintervening planarization steps may be omitted. The initial step in theprocess is the epitaxial growth of a layer of buffer material on theperiodically poled growth template. The epitaxial growth can be carriedout using methods such as metal organic chemical vapor deposition(MOCVD) or, in the case of materials that do not comprise aluminum,hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE). However, in at least someembodiments, HVPE is preferred due to its ability to prevent or minimizedomain boundary defects, which are frequently present in the originalgrowth template, from propagating through the subsequently grown layersof the heterostructure. The ability of an HVPE-grown buffer layer tomitigate the effect of growth template defects, is illustrated inExample 2, below. Once the layer of buffer material is grown, its topsurface (i.e., the surface upon which the next layer in theheterostructure is grown) is polished using a chemical polish, such as achemical mechanical polish. This is followed by an isotropic etch, whichmay comprise a wet chemical etch or a dry vapor etch.

Next, a layer of lower cladding material is grown on the top surface ofthe layer of buffer material. Epitaxial growth of the lower claddinglayer can be carried out, for example, using MOCVD or, in the case ofmaterials that do not comprise aluminum, HVPE. Again, once the layer ofbuffer material is grown, its top surface is polished using a chemicaletch, such as a chemical mechanical etch. This is followed by anisotropic etch, which may comprises a wet chemical etch or a dry vaporetch. However, in some embodiments, a high temperature dry vapor etch isparticularly well-suited for achieving an isotropic etch. In structureswhere the lower cladding layer (or another layer) in the heterostructureis readily oxidized, it may be desirable to conduct the etching step insitu followed by the in situ growth a thin layer of material thatprevents subsequent oxidation. In some embodiments, the material of thisthin layer is the same material as that used for the next functionallayer in the heterostructure. For example, in the embodiment describedhere, the thin layer grown in situ over the lower cladding layer can bea layer of waveguide core material that provides a growth front for theremainder of the waveguide core. As used here, the term in situ is usedto indicate that the etching and subsequent thin layer growth steps areconducted without an intervening step that would expose the layer to anoxidizing environment. Thus, the etching and thin-layer growth steps maybe conducted under a non-oxidizing atmosphere/ambient such ashigh-purity hydrogen or nitrogen.

Once the lower layer of cladding material is planarized, a layer ofwaveguide core material is grown on its top surface. Like the layer ofcladding material, the layer of core material can be grown epitaxiallyusing methods such as MOCVD or, in the case of materials that do notcomprise aluminum, HVPE then subsequently planarized using a chemicalpolish followed by an isotropic wet or dry chemical etch.

An upper cladding layer is then grown on the top surface of the corelayer, followed by the growth of a layer of ridge material. Because theupper cladding layer is typically quite thin (e.g., <1 μm), the layer ofridge material may be grown without first planarizing the top surface ofthe layer of cladding material. However, in some embodiments,intermediate chemical polishing and isotropic wet or dry vapor chemicaletching steps are used prior to the growth of the ridge material. Oncethe layer of ridge material has been grown, it is planarized using achemical polish followed by an isotropic chemical etch. Then, alongitudinal ridge can be defined in that material using, for example,known lithographic techniques and a combination of dry etching and wetchemical etching that is isotropic, in order to achieve low rms surfaceroughness and straight, smooth waveguide ridge sidewalls.

For purposes of clarification, in some embodiments, an intermediatelayer of material may be grown over one of the structural layersreferred to in the description above in order to facilitate theprocessing of the waveguide structure. For example, in some embodiments,one or more intermediate layers of etch stop material may be included inthe structure. In such embodiments, the step of growing a second layer(e.g., a layer of ridge material) ‘on’ a first layer (e.g., an uppercladding layer) includes a step in which the second layer is actuallygrown directly on an intermediate layer (e.g., an etch stop layer) thatfacilitates semiconductor processing.

The waveguides fabricated using the present methods can be used togenerate radiation via nonlinear frequency conversion, as shownschematically in FIG. 1A. In a basic method for using the waveguides forthis purpose, input radiation 112 from an input radiation source, suchas a pump laser or optical fiber, is directed into one end of thewaveguide along the axis of optical propagation and thefrequency-converted output radiation 114 exits the waveguide at itsopposing end. The frequency converted output can then be collectedand/or redirected for downstream applications. Depending upon thematerials used in the semiconductor waveguide heterostructure, thepresent waveguides can be use to generate coherent radiation vianon-linear optical processes, such as second harmonic generation anddifference frequency generation, over a broad range of frequencies,including the visible, near- and mid-infrared regions of theelectromagnetic spectrum. The frequency converted output may find usesin such applications as laser projection and displays, spectroscopy,optical communications, remote sensing and infrared countermeasures.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Intermediate Interface Planarization DuringHeterostructure Growth

This example describes the growth of a waveguiding structure having aGaAs core, AlGaAs cladding layers, a GaAs buffer layer and a GaAswaveguide ridge. Each of the semiconductor layers was grown via MOVPE asfollows. A vertical-chamber MOVPE (Thomas Swan/Aixtron 3×2 reactor, witha close-coupled showerhead gas-delivery system) was used to grow theAlGaAs or GaAs films on a OPGaAs growth template. The reactor pressureand growth temperature were fixed at 100 Ton and 700° C. Trimethylaluminum (TMAl) and trimethyl gallium (TMGa) were used as group-IIIprecursors, while arsine (AsH₃) was used as the group-V source. The TMAlbubbler pressure was set at 1000 Torr, with a bubbler temperature of 17°C. The TMGa bubbler pressure was set at 1000 Torr, with a bubblertemperature of −10° C. The molar flow rate of TMGa and TMAl was5.45×10⁻⁵ mol/min and 2.41×10⁻⁵ mol/min, respectively. The growth ratesfor the bulk AlGaAs and GaAs materials were 4.2 μm/hr and 2.8 μm/hr,respectively. High-resolution X-ray diffraction (HRXRD), ω-2θ rockingcurves around the (004) reflection, were used to determine theout-of-plane lattice parameter for AlGaAs films. In order to determinethe Al content of Al_(x)Ga_(1−x)As films the X-ray rocking-curvediffraction angle derived by using Gehrsitz et al.'s polynomialexpression for the lattice constant as a function of the Al content, x,was employed. (See Gehrsitz, S., Reinhart, F. K., Gourgon, C., Herres,N., Vonlanthen, A. and Sigg, H., “The refractive index ofAl_(x)Ga_(1-x)As below the band gap: Accurate determination andempirical modeling”, J. Appl. Phys., 87, June 2000, pp. 7825-7837.)

Following growth, the buffer layer, lower cladding layer, core layer andrigde material layer underwent a chemical mechanical polish (CMP)followed by an isotropic chemical etch. Witness templates were used todetermine layer thicknesses achieved by polishing, and the quality ofthe layers' top surfaces after polishing and isotropic chemical etching(e.g., measuring the rms roughness value for those layers' topsurfaces).

In preparation for polishing, the actual and witness templates werebonded to a handle wafer using a bonding medium of Apiezon W Waxdissolved in trichloroethylene (TCE): ˜1 g wax/9 g TCE. A given templatewas bonded to a 2″-diameter silicon handle wafer using Apiezon W wax.This type of wax was used for its ease in bonding and debonding, mostlydue to its solubility in Ecoclear and TCE. The dissolved wax wassandwiched between the silicon handle wafer and the template, which werepressed together between lapped-flat glass plates using ˜1 kg of weight,until the dissolved wax dried. Heating the sample to ˜100° C. decreasedthe drying time of the wax. The bonding step took about 1 hour, butcould easily be increased by increasing heating and cooling rates.(Note: This bonding/mounting process was carried out so that, during theCMP process, the structures would not break.)

CMP was performed on the GaAs buffer layers of the actual and witnessstructures using a Logitech CDP1-SCH polishing tool. The samples weremounted in the CMP carrier head and held in place using ethane diolsurface tension. The polishing pad was Eminess Suba X II 20, rotated at50 rpm, and the polishing slurry was a mixture of 96% Eminess Ultra-Sol556 Colloidal Silica and 4% Clorox bleach. The bleach was added to theslurry, which was then continuously stirred during mixing and throughoutthe process using a Teflon-coated magnetic stir bar. The slurry was fedat a rate of 50 mL/min. The samples were rotated at 40 rpm and polishedwith 2 psi of pressure applied to the carrier head. After CMP, thesamples were kept wet to prevent particulates from adhering to thesurfaces. The samples were sonicated for approximately 30 seconds,dipped in hydrofluoric acid (49-51%) for 2 minutes, rinsed in DI water,rinsed in isopropanol, and blow-dried with nitrogen gas.

The typical material removal rate was ˜2.0 μm/min when the slurry had afresh bleach content. Since the removal rate is a function of padwearout as well as the amount of bleach in the slurry, one shouldperiodically check the removal rate by growing two-layer test samplescomposed of an ˜0.5 μm-thick InGaP and an ˜4.0 μm-thick GaAs layer. TheGaAs layer is used for CMP (the removal rate is the same, for a givenset of conditions, for both GaAs and AlGAs) while the thin InGaP layeris used as a marker, for determining the thickness of the remaining GaAslayer after CMP, from SEM cross-sectional photographs.

The CMPed templates were then debonded from the Si handle wafers. If thewax layer was sufficiently thin, sonication debonded the structures fromthe Si handle wafer. The excess wax was then cleaned off with a TCErinse and UV ozone. If the structures did not debond with sonication,they were debonded by submerging the sample/handle wafer in Ecoclear.The Ecoclear was heated to ˜80-100° C. After some time, the structuresdebonded and the solution was cooled, and then rinsed in TCE to removeany remaining wax. Remaining organic surface contaminants were removedby incubation in UV-generated ozone for one hour. The sample was thendipped in hydrofluoric acid (49-51%) for 2 mins, rinsed in DI water,rinsed in isopropanol, and blow-dried with nitrogen gas.

A piece of the witness template was then cleaved to verify the thicknessof the CMPed layer via SEM. The same piece of witness template was usedfor: a) checking the surface quality using a Nomarski microscope (i.e.,checking if pit-like defects were present), and b) determining the rmsroughness using atomic force microscopy (AFM).

Next, a wet chemical etch was carried on the witness and actualstructures in order to remove any mechanical damage caused during CMP.The etch solution used was: H₃PO₄:H₂O₂:H₂O (3:1:125), which is isotropicwith respect to the domains of differing crystalline orientation. Theetch rate was ˜0.025 μm/min.

A cladding layer of Al_(0.3)Ga_(0.7)As was grown in situ followed by insitu regrowth of a thin layer of GaAs, for both the actual and witnessstructures, in a custom-made, horizontal-flow MOVPE reactor with aninduction-heated graphite susceptor, by using HCl gas diluted to a ratioof 0.1% and employing an HCl-gas filter. Initially the filter/purifierneeded to be conditioned by exposing it to concentrated HCl to saturateit, and then running it until the etch rate stabilized. Thestabilization typically took ˜5 hours.

After in-situ etching ˜0.1 μm of Al_(0.3)Ga_(0.7)As for a duration of˜300 sec, the transition to in-situ growth of GaAs consisted of abruptlyintroducing a high concentration of arsine at the reactor head, whicheffectively halted the etching process. Then, the HCl flow was stoppedand the TMGa flow was introduced in the same abrupt fashion as thearsine, in order to reach the equilibrium V/III-ratio quickly. Afterregrowing ˜0.5 μm of GaAs, at a growth rate of ˜3.0 μm/hour, the TMGaflow was closed to the reactor and the sample was cooled under arsine.Table 2, below, displays the specific etch and regrowth conditions.

TABLE 2 Etch Growth Conditions Conditions Temperature 750° C. 750° C.Pressure 76 torr 76 torr HC1 Flow 0.126 sccm — TMGa Flow — 1.34 sccmAsH₃ Flow 0.25 sccm 100 sccm V/III_(effective) 2 74.5 Total Flow 6635sccm 6614 sccm

Next, a 5 μm thick core layer of GaAs was grown via MOVCD on the witnessand actual structures. The structures were then bonded to Si handlewafers and 2 μm was CMPed from the layers, as described previously. Thewitness structure was then debonded from the handle wafer, as describedpreviously. A piece of the witness was then cleaved to verify thethickness of the CMPed layer via SEM. Verifying the thickness of thislayer is important since it constitutes the waveguide core. If thethickness was much larger than the target thickness (e.g., 4.0-5.0 μm vs3.0 μm), the thickness difference was removed using a CMP on the bondedstructure. If the thickness was slightly thicker than the target value(e.g., 3.3-3.4 μm vs 3.0 μm) the target thickness for the ridge wasincreased (e.g., for a 3.2-3.4 μm-thick core the ridge height would beincreased from the initial target value of 1.5 μm to ˜2.0 μm). If thethickness was smaller than the target value (e.g., 2.0 μm vs 3.0 μm) aslightly shallower ridge was etched (e.g., for a 2.0 μm-thick core theridge height would be decreased from the initial target value of 1.5 μmto ˜1.4 μm). The same piece of witness template was used for: a)checking the surface quality using a Nomarski microscope (i.e., checkingif pit-like defects were present), and b) determining the rms roughnessusing atomic force microscopy (AFM). Once it was determined that anappropriate core layer thickness had been achieved, the actual structurewas debonded from the Si handle wafer using the previously describedtechniques.

A wet-etch was then used to remove 0.1 μm of material from the remainderof the witness structure and the actual structure. The etch solutionused was: H₃PO₄:H₂O₂:H₂O (3:1:125).

Next the upper-cladding layer and layer of ridge material were formed,followed by the formation of the waveguide ridge. A 0.5 μm thick layerof Al_(0.25)Ga_(0.75)As cladding and a 4.0 μm thick layer of GaAs weregrown via MOVCD on the witness and actual structures. The structureswere then bonded to a Si handle wafer and 2 μm was CMPed from thelayers, as described previously. The witness structure was then debondedfrom the handle wafer, as described previously. A piece of the witnesswas then cleaved to verify the thickness of the CMPed layer via SEM and,given the measured GaAs-layer thickness value, the bonded actualstructure was CMPed to obtain a thickness corresponding to the plannedridge-guide height plus an extra 0.1 μm to be removed with a dilutedH₃PO₄ chemical etch after CMP.

A wet chemical etch was then used to remove 0.1 μm of material from botha ¼ wafer of CMPed GaAs and from the actual structure. The etch solutionused was: H₃PO₄:H₂O₂:H₂O (3:1:125).

A 350 nm thick layer of Si₃N₄ was then deposited on both pieces viaPECVD using a PlasmaTherm 70 PECVD/RIE under the following conditions:Flow rate (sccm): N₂:(2% SiH₄ in N₂):(5% NH₃ in N₂)=750:700:20;Temperature=250° C.; Power=25 W; Pressure=500 mT; and Depositiontime=2000 s. The waveguide ridge was define photolithographically usingan AZ 5214 resist spun on at 5500 rpm for 30 sec, prebaked on a hotplateat a temperature of 90° C. for 2 min, exposed on a Karl Suss MA6 alignerfor 5 sec (Intensity=10 mW/cm²), developed in an AZ 327 developer for 40sec followed by a deionized (DI) water rinse and drying in N₂.

The Si₃N₄ was removed from both pieces by reactive ion etching (RIE)using a Unaxis 790 under the following conditions: CF₄ 60 mT (CF₄/O₂=45sccm/5 sccm; Pressure=60 mT; Power=100 W); and Etch time=2.5 min.

The photoresist was stripped using an acetone/isopropyl alcohol rinse,following by drying under N₂. An O₂ plasma cleaning was carried out in aUnaxis 790 under the following conditions: 150 W O₂ (O₂=40 sccm;Pressure=100 mT; Power=150 W); and an Etch time=6 min.

An inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etch of the GaAs ridge material wascarried out using a pre-established ICP etching rate for 1+¼ GaAs waferpieces. The ICP etch was conducted using a PlasmaTherm 770 ICP-RIE underthe following conditions: GAAS10 (Pressure=2 mT; Flow rate=BCl₃:Ar=10sccm:5 sccm; Power (RIE)=250 W; and Power (ICP)=500 W. The ¼ wafer piecewas then cleaved and the ridge-guide height measured. If the ridge-guideheight was not tall enough, the rest of the ridge was etched into theactual structure using ICP. Alternately, the ridge-guide height can bemeasured on the actual structure either in situ via Zygo or via alphastep. If it is not tall enough, the rest of the ridge can be etched, viaan ICP etch, to the dry-etching target height.

Next, the actual structure was wet chemical etched with diluted H₃PO₄for 8 minutes; that is, corresponding to a 0.2 μm-thick GaAs layer ofmaterial to be removed from outside the ridges and from the ridgesidewalls. After the etching the structure was rinsed in DI water anddried with N₂.

Finally, the Si₃N₄ was removed via RIE using an Unaxis 790 under thefollowing conditions: CF₄ 60 mT (CF₄/O₂=45 sccm/5 sccm; Pressure=60 mT;Power=100 W); and an Etch time=3 min.

Example 2 Crystal Growth via Hydride Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (HVPE)

Sometimes the MBE growth templates had severe defects at the domainboundaries. As a result, the initial GaAs layers grown on the templateswere pitted. Even if most pits were removed via CMP, it was found thatafter further crystal growth the pits would reappear at the top surfaceof the next grown layer. Thus, in spite of repeated CMP steps, pits werefound to vertically propagate through the whole grown waveguidestructure.

An experiment was carried out on a ¼ wafer piece of semi-insulating (SI)MBE template: 6.0 μm of GaAs was grown via HVPE in an HVPE reactor.After the HVPE growth the pits virtually disappeared, even though thetemplate had a large amount of defects at the domain boundaries. Theimportant information out of this experiment was that thehigh-growth-rate HVPE growth method “healed” the defects of the templateso that they would not continue to propagate through the grownstructure.

The word “illustrative” is used herein to mean serving as an example,instance, or illustration. Any aspect or design described herein as“illustrative” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred oradvantageous over other aspects or designs. Further, for the purposes ofthis disclosure and unless otherwise specified, “a” or “an” means “oneor more”.

The foregoing description of illustrative embodiments of the inventionhas been presented for purposes of illustration and of description. Itis not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to theprecise form disclosed, and modifications and variations are possible inlight of the above teachings or may be acquired from practice of theinvention. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explainthe principles of the invention and as practical applications of theinvention to enable one skilled in the art to utilize the invention invarious embodiments and with various modifications as suited to theparticular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of theinvention be defined by the claims appended hereto and theirequivalents.

What is claimed is:
 1. A waveguiding, orientation-patternedsemiconductor structure comprising: a growth template comprising a firstset of template domains comprising a material having a first crystallineorientation and second set of template domains comprising the materialhaving a second crystalline orientation, wherein the domains of thefirst set and the domains of the second set are disposed in aperiodically alternating arrangement along the optical propagation axisof the structure; optionally, a layer of buffer material on the topsurface of the growth template, wherein the layer of buffer materialcomprises a first set of buffer layer domains disposed on the first setof template domains and having a first crystalline orientation and asecond set of buffer layer domains disposed on the second set oftemplate domains and having a second crystalline orientation; a lowerlayer of cladding material on the top surface of the growth template or,if present, on the top surface of the layer of buffer material; whereinthe lower layer of cladding material comprises a first set of lowercladding layer domains disposed on the first set of template domains or,if present, on the first set of buffer layer domains, and having a firstcrystalline orientation and a second set of lower cladding layer domainsdisposed on the second set of template domains or, if present, on thesecond set of buffer layer domains, and having a second crystallineorientation; a layer of core material on the top surface of the lowerlayer of cladding material; wherein the layer of core material comprisesa first set of core layer domains disposed on the first set of lowercladding layer domains and having a first crystalline orientation and asecond set of core layer domains disposed on the second set of lowercladding layer domains and having a second crystalline orientation; anupper layer of cladding material on the top surface of the layer of corematerial; wherein the upper layer of cladding material comprises a firstset of upper cladding layer domains disposed on the first set of corelayer domains and having a first crystalline orientation and a secondset of upper cladding layer domains disposed on the second set of corelayer domains and having a second crystalline orientation; and awaveguide ridge on the top surface of the layer of upper claddingmaterial; wherein the waveguide ridge comprises a first set of ridgedomains disposed on the first set of upper cladding layer domains andhaving a first crystalline orientation and a second set of ridge domainsdisposed on the second set of upper cladding layer domains and having asecond crystalline orientation; wherein the top surface of the layer ofbuffer material, if present, the top surface of the lower layer ofcladding material, the top surface of the layer of core material and thetop surface of the waveguide ridge each have an rms roughness of nogreater than 10 nm.
 2. The structure of claim 1, wherein the top surfaceof the layer of buffer material, if present, the top surface of thelower layer of cladding material, the top surface of the layer of corematerial and the top surface of the waveguide ridge each have an rmsroughness of no greater than 6 nm.
 3. The structure of claim 1, whereinthe top surface of the layer of buffer material, if present, the topsurface of the lower layer of cladding material, the top surface of thelayer of core material and the top surface of the waveguide ridge eachhave an rms roughness of no greater than 4 nm.
 4. The structure of claim1, wherein the buffer material, if present, lower cladding material,core material and upper cladding material are each Group III-Vsemiconductor materials.
 5. The structure of claim 4, wherein the corematerial comprises GaAs.
 6. The structure of claim 5, wherein the lowerlayer of cladding material and the upper layer of cladding materialcomprise InGaP.
 7. The structure of claim 5, wherein the layer of buffermaterial is present and comprises GaAs, the lower and upper claddingmaterials comprise AlGaAs and the ridge material comprises GaAs.
 8. Thestructure of claim 4, wherein the core material comprises GaP.
 9. Thestructure of claim 1, wherein the layer of buffer material is present.10. The structure of claim 1, wherein the layer of buffer material isabsent.
 11. The structure of claim 1, wherein the lower layer ofcladding material, the layer of core material, the upper layer ofcladding material and the waveguide ridge each have a layer thickness inthe range from about 0.2 to about 6 μm.